- information value and salience;
- left and right: given and new;
- top and bottom: ideal and real.
Kress and van Leeuwen define "compositon" as the relation of the "representational and interactive meanings of the picture to each other" through interrelated systems of information value, salience and framing. Framing, as discussed in Unit 15, connects or differentiates elements of layout through elements that imply division or by actual frame lines. Here we concentrate on systems of information value and salience, as defined below.
Information value
Elements placed in specific "zones" of an image carry corresponding informational values. The division of the page into left and right, top and bottom, and center and margins define these zones. The image to the left summarizes the zones and their corresponding informational values: given and new, ideal and real, nucleus and dependents.
Salience
Elements are given varying levels of salience---they attract the viewer's attention to different degrees. Salience is created through relative choices in color, size, sharpness and placement. Often, vectors created by the shape and placement of elements help lead the eye from one element to another, in order of decreasing salience.
Left and right: given and new
Elements placed to the left of the page's vertical axis are presented as "given" pieces of information, or things that the viewer already knows; "new" elements on the right are not yet known or agreed upon. The values of given and new in an advertisement's elements are assumed by the advertiser, and it is up to the viewer to accept or reject the roles as presented. Take a look at the following advertisements using a "given and new" layout.
Note: In many advertisements that use a "before and after" appeal, "before" is placed on the left and "after" on the right; it is given that everyone shares problems, and the advertiser has a new solution for them.
Top and bottom: ideal and real
A sense of contrast is presented through layouts based on the vertical axis. Elements in the upper part of the page appeal to the viewer's emotions, expressing "what might be." The bottom elements have an informative appeal, showing "what is." These contrasting appeals can be assigned the values of ideal and real, where "ideal" elements are more salient and simply contain the general essence of information; "real" elements give practical and specific information.
68. Torengos actually uses a double Ideal-Real format. First of all, the Ideal "scientific" approach to dip capacity ("measured" in grams of salsa) shows that one chip holds more than anything but a bulldozer. In contrast to that potential Ideal, the Real is presented as the chip holding some salsa. So, the advertisement invites the reader to quit worrying about science and just eat something.
Ideal: You don't need to know the details of "dip capacity" to see that Torengos holds a lot of dip./Advertisers can give you more information than necessary.
Real: See the proof that Torengos holds a lot of dip./This is all you need to know.
Then, these two parts are presented as Ideal with the product container as Real: now you know what you want (Ideal), here is what to look for (and where).
Ideal and Real are expressed in an interesting way in 43 Aveda (right), which has the product image, name and description on top, with an Image component of 3 images in the bottom 60%. We can compare this with 43 Avedaflip which has the "expected" arrangement.
Monday, April 28, 2008
Dynamic organization of images
Graphic design considers the following principles to be important:
Correspondence
Repetition of elements such as color, direction, value, shape, or texture creates correspondence among elements. Related to Correspondence is Continuity, which is the handling of these elements to create similarities of form.
Alignment
Visual connections are made between and among elements when their edges or axes align.
Flow
The arrangements of elements can lead viewers to read these elements in a particular order. This principle relates to rhythm, which is the sense of movement from one element to another.
We will look at how elements are organized in advertisements with specific case studies, focussing on three aspects:
- vectors and salience;
- perspective;
- framing;
- product placement.
Correspondence
Repetition of elements such as color, direction, value, shape, or texture creates correspondence among elements. Related to Correspondence is Continuity, which is the handling of these elements to create similarities of form.
Alignment
Visual connections are made between and among elements when their edges or axes align.
Flow
The arrangements of elements can lead viewers to read these elements in a particular order. This principle relates to rhythm, which is the sense of movement from one element to another.
We will look at how elements are organized in advertisements with specific case studies, focussing on three aspects:
- vectors and salience;
- perspective;
- framing;
- product placement.
Burger King's "Fiery Fries"
This very simple advertisement was created by Andrew Clarke of Saatchi & Saatchi (Singapore). The quotation below (from Aitchison 1999, p. 171) describes Clarke's thought processes.
"By putting Fiery Fries near the logo, it reduces the ad to two elements. I did try Fiery Fries just below the picture, and I also tried it centralised under the picture at the bottom, and both times the logo was in the corner. So there were three elements, picture and caption and logo, and what I did was break up the pureness of the white, so I just tucked it all in the corner."
You can see the different versions that (we presume) Clarke had in mind by clicking here. The visual disconnects that Clarke describes for the alternative versions also seem to alter the Ideal-Real perception that the reader has: "Fiery Fries" moves out of the Real to the Ideal. In other words, only the version that Clarke actually used has the form:
Image/Ideal: "What is this?"
Text/Real: Fiery Fries from Burger King.
"By putting Fiery Fries near the logo, it reduces the ad to two elements. I did try Fiery Fries just below the picture, and I also tried it centralised under the picture at the bottom, and both times the logo was in the corner. So there were three elements, picture and caption and logo, and what I did was break up the pureness of the white, so I just tucked it all in the corner."
You can see the different versions that (we presume) Clarke had in mind by clicking here. The visual disconnects that Clarke describes for the alternative versions also seem to alter the Ideal-Real perception that the reader has: "Fiery Fries" moves out of the Real to the Ideal. In other words, only the version that Clarke actually used has the form:
Image/Ideal: "What is this?"
Text/Real: Fiery Fries from Burger King.
Advertising in action
Here we discuss two practical approaches to the creation of advertisements. The first approach describes the general approach of the BBDO company. The second describes the process of creation of a single, simple advertisement for Burger King "Fiery Fries".
Once you have read these descriptions, think about how the practical options that these companies put into effect for their advertisement have properties that you can analyze and understand based on the our ideas.
Once you have read these descriptions, think about how the practical options that these companies put into effect for their advertisement have properties that you can analyze and understand based on the our ideas.
People in advertising
Case study I: fear advertisements
In Liu and Westmorland's study of people in fear advertisements, they found that there tended to be more averted gazes in "before" advertisements and direct gazes in "after advertisements.
Before
Before and After
After
Before After
Averted Gaze 6/9 12/13 7/9 5/12
Direct Gaze 3/9 1/13 2/9 7/12
Smile Count 1/9 1/13 9/9 10/12
Liu and Westmoreland associate averted gazes to insecurity and low self-esteem; the high number of averted gazes in "before" advertisements reinforces the negativity of the situation.
Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen's identification of "demand" and "offer" photographs can be also applied in the consideration of gazes in fear advertisements, where "demand" photos are those in which people have a direct gaze and "offer" photos are those involving averted gaze. The significance of the terms "demand" and "offer" are not directly applicable here; advertisers probably are not trying to directly "offer" you a problem in "before" advertisements. Instead, they give you a situation, or a peek into someone else's life, as if to say, "We are offering you a glimpse into this person's life. You don't have to be this person if you use our product." On the other hand, in "after" advertisements the person portrayed "demands" from the viewer an association with the solution, saying, "I want you to recognize the happiness I've found. You can share my happiness if you use this product."
Case Study II: energy bar advertisements
In a sense, the people depicted in energy bar advertisements are akin to the people of the "after" advertisements above. In constrast to the fear advertisements above, however, the photographs of energy bar advertisements mostly fall into the "offer" category with the participants looking away from the camera. The people in energy bar ads are presented as testimonials to the products' benefits; the advertiser says, "I offer you proof that this energy bar provides the energy and endurance you need. What can this product do for you?" The relationship between the reader and the depicted person is reinforced by text in ads like 60.09 PowerBar. The advertisement lets the reader know "What Peter Reid knows" without saying, "this is what you should know," offering the information without imposing it onto the reader. The general intimacy of these advertisements, shown by the close range of the camera, reminds the reader that the athletes depicted no different than anyone else; if they can achieve these physical feats, maybe you can too--if you use a certain product.
Case Study III: alcohol advertisements
The people shown in alcohol advertisements were noted for their establishment of the context of the images presented. Alcohol advertisements tended to depict wealthy living and sex appeal by characterizing the alcohol consumers as such. The use of "demand" and "offer" is much more potent in this context, where advertisers ask consumers to observe, desire and participate in social and psychological benefits of alcohol rather than the physical and nutritious benefits of energy bars. People in alcohol advertisements were mostly split between "demand" and "offer," both saying "Join us in enjoying this product" and "Look at how these people are enjoying this product." Overall, the use of people in advertisements was not overwhelmingly popular, as the product alone often provides a powerful enough message.
In Liu and Westmorland's study of people in fear advertisements, they found that there tended to be more averted gazes in "before" advertisements and direct gazes in "after advertisements.
Before
Before and After
After
Before After
Averted Gaze 6/9 12/13 7/9 5/12
Direct Gaze 3/9 1/13 2/9 7/12
Smile Count 1/9 1/13 9/9 10/12
Liu and Westmoreland associate averted gazes to insecurity and low self-esteem; the high number of averted gazes in "before" advertisements reinforces the negativity of the situation.
Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen's identification of "demand" and "offer" photographs can be also applied in the consideration of gazes in fear advertisements, where "demand" photos are those in which people have a direct gaze and "offer" photos are those involving averted gaze. The significance of the terms "demand" and "offer" are not directly applicable here; advertisers probably are not trying to directly "offer" you a problem in "before" advertisements. Instead, they give you a situation, or a peek into someone else's life, as if to say, "We are offering you a glimpse into this person's life. You don't have to be this person if you use our product." On the other hand, in "after" advertisements the person portrayed "demands" from the viewer an association with the solution, saying, "I want you to recognize the happiness I've found. You can share my happiness if you use this product."
Case Study II: energy bar advertisements
In a sense, the people depicted in energy bar advertisements are akin to the people of the "after" advertisements above. In constrast to the fear advertisements above, however, the photographs of energy bar advertisements mostly fall into the "offer" category with the participants looking away from the camera. The people in energy bar ads are presented as testimonials to the products' benefits; the advertiser says, "I offer you proof that this energy bar provides the energy and endurance you need. What can this product do for you?" The relationship between the reader and the depicted person is reinforced by text in ads like 60.09 PowerBar. The advertisement lets the reader know "What Peter Reid knows" without saying, "this is what you should know," offering the information without imposing it onto the reader. The general intimacy of these advertisements, shown by the close range of the camera, reminds the reader that the athletes depicted no different than anyone else; if they can achieve these physical feats, maybe you can too--if you use a certain product.
Case Study III: alcohol advertisements
The people shown in alcohol advertisements were noted for their establishment of the context of the images presented. Alcohol advertisements tended to depict wealthy living and sex appeal by characterizing the alcohol consumers as such. The use of "demand" and "offer" is much more potent in this context, where advertisers ask consumers to observe, desire and participate in social and psychological benefits of alcohol rather than the physical and nutritious benefits of energy bars. People in alcohol advertisements were mostly split between "demand" and "offer," both saying "Join us in enjoying this product" and "Look at how these people are enjoying this product." Overall, the use of people in advertisements was not overwhelmingly popular, as the product alone often provides a powerful enough message.
Colors and people used in categories of advertising
Case study I: fear advertisements
Liu and Westmoreland found that "before" advertisements were generally darker, using shades of black and white, green and brown; in contrast, "after" advertisements used bright colors such as red, orange and yellow. The correlation between color and mood and attitude is clearly present in these ads, in which darker advertisements try to convey a problematic, sad or negative situation and brighter advertisements show the happiness and cheer that can be achieved once the problem has been solved.
Color choices can also correspond to levels of salience. Liu and Westmoreland note that "before" advertisements look somewhat bland, plain or dreary because of the use of neutral colors like black, white, brown and green. The bland colors give elements in the advertisement low salience because of the lack of contrast, and the problem is perceived as a whole, a completely undesirable situation. Brighter colors and the use of white space, on the other hand, can give elements more salience and the ad can more clearly focus on the bright attitude of the person that has been "cured."
Lastly, in "before and after" advertisements both dark and bright colors were used, though not as much as intermediate colors such as blue, purple and yellow. This selection of colors suggests balance between "before" and "after"--for every problem, there can be a solution.
Case study II: energy bar advertisements
The color swatches above were taken from 29 energy bar advertisements and loosely arranged by hue and brightness, showing the popularity of brown and blue tones. Brown was a popular choice as the color of chocolate, a common bar flavor, and in association with nature and health. Blue can also be associated with health, cleanliness and serenity, which appeals to lifestyle choices that energy bar users might make. Darker shades are more common, perhaps to emphasize the richness of flavor and nutrients energy bars provide.
Case study III: alcohol advertisements
In the sample of alcohol advertisements, red, black and blue were predominantly used. The bold, eye-catching reds were mostly an amber hue, the color of many of the products (whiskey and beer) themselves. Using the rich reds and ambers, advertisers could convey a sense of weight and even taste to the readers. Blue hues were mostly seen in in advertisements for clear liquors, such as vodka. Blues evoke a cool, clean, smooth sensation that vodka companies may want to associate with their products. Lastly, the use of black connotes the nightlife and sophistication in which alcohol may be consumed.
Liu and Westmoreland found that "before" advertisements were generally darker, using shades of black and white, green and brown; in contrast, "after" advertisements used bright colors such as red, orange and yellow. The correlation between color and mood and attitude is clearly present in these ads, in which darker advertisements try to convey a problematic, sad or negative situation and brighter advertisements show the happiness and cheer that can be achieved once the problem has been solved.
Color choices can also correspond to levels of salience. Liu and Westmoreland note that "before" advertisements look somewhat bland, plain or dreary because of the use of neutral colors like black, white, brown and green. The bland colors give elements in the advertisement low salience because of the lack of contrast, and the problem is perceived as a whole, a completely undesirable situation. Brighter colors and the use of white space, on the other hand, can give elements more salience and the ad can more clearly focus on the bright attitude of the person that has been "cured."
Lastly, in "before and after" advertisements both dark and bright colors were used, though not as much as intermediate colors such as blue, purple and yellow. This selection of colors suggests balance between "before" and "after"--for every problem, there can be a solution.
Case study II: energy bar advertisements
The color swatches above were taken from 29 energy bar advertisements and loosely arranged by hue and brightness, showing the popularity of brown and blue tones. Brown was a popular choice as the color of chocolate, a common bar flavor, and in association with nature and health. Blue can also be associated with health, cleanliness and serenity, which appeals to lifestyle choices that energy bar users might make. Darker shades are more common, perhaps to emphasize the richness of flavor and nutrients energy bars provide.
Case study III: alcohol advertisements
In the sample of alcohol advertisements, red, black and blue were predominantly used. The bold, eye-catching reds were mostly an amber hue, the color of many of the products (whiskey and beer) themselves. Using the rich reds and ambers, advertisers could convey a sense of weight and even taste to the readers. Blue hues were mostly seen in in advertisements for clear liquors, such as vodka. Blues evoke a cool, clean, smooth sensation that vodka companies may want to associate with their products. Lastly, the use of black connotes the nightlife and sophistication in which alcohol may be consumed.
Gaze: demand and offer
People in photographs can generally be divided into two categories: those who look at the camera and those who do not. Advertisers use the gaze of the people they picture to convey particular attitudes---pleasure at use of a product or displeasure at the absence of a product, for example. Kress and van Leeuwen characterize the gaze of a person as either a "demand" of or an "offer" to the viewer.
"Demand" pictures are those in which its participants are looking directly at the camera (and therefore, the reader). Kress and van Leeuwen assert that vectors, following the gaze of the photographed participant, connect participant with viewer. "Contact is established, even if it is only on an imaginary level." (p. 122) Using a "demand" picture acknowledges the viewer, "addressing them with a visual 'you.'" In addressing the reader directly, the participant's gaze demands an imaginary relation with the viewer.
In advertisements, the visual "demand" is usually one of participation or acknowlegement, where the picture seems to say, "I demand you to enjoy this product and its benefits." The woman in 25 Michelob says, "I demand you send me a beer---but only a Michelob."
On the other hand, pictures in which participants have a indirect gaze address the reader indirectly. "Here the viewer is not object, but subject of the look, and the represented participant is the object of the viewer's dispassionate scrutiny" (p. 124). The photographed participants are "offered" to the readers "as though they were specimens in a display case," and the relationship between participant and reader is one of unfamiliarity rather than the intimacy of a "demand" photograph. In contrast to the visual "you" presented in "demand" pictures, "offer" pictures lack the corresponding visual "I." Instead, just as the participant becomes the object of the picture, "I" is objectified into a visual "he" or "she."
In "offer" advertisements, the picture visually speaks to the reader through the author of the picture rather than the picture's participants. The author of 28.2 Rave says, "I offer you proof that Rave hair gel really does work."
"Demand" pictures are those in which its participants are looking directly at the camera (and therefore, the reader). Kress and van Leeuwen assert that vectors, following the gaze of the photographed participant, connect participant with viewer. "Contact is established, even if it is only on an imaginary level." (p. 122) Using a "demand" picture acknowledges the viewer, "addressing them with a visual 'you.'" In addressing the reader directly, the participant's gaze demands an imaginary relation with the viewer.
In advertisements, the visual "demand" is usually one of participation or acknowlegement, where the picture seems to say, "I demand you to enjoy this product and its benefits." The woman in 25 Michelob says, "I demand you send me a beer---but only a Michelob."
On the other hand, pictures in which participants have a indirect gaze address the reader indirectly. "Here the viewer is not object, but subject of the look, and the represented participant is the object of the viewer's dispassionate scrutiny" (p. 124). The photographed participants are "offered" to the readers "as though they were specimens in a display case," and the relationship between participant and reader is one of unfamiliarity rather than the intimacy of a "demand" photograph. In contrast to the visual "you" presented in "demand" pictures, "offer" pictures lack the corresponding visual "I." Instead, just as the participant becomes the object of the picture, "I" is objectified into a visual "he" or "she."
In "offer" advertisements, the picture visually speaks to the reader through the author of the picture rather than the picture's participants. The author of 28.2 Rave says, "I offer you proof that Rave hair gel really does work."
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